- 151.1 Chapter preview
- 151.2.1 Setting the Stage for the Assessment
- 151.2.2 Key Concepts in Climate Science
- 151.2.3 Multiple Lines of Evidence for Climate Change
- 151.3.1 Global and Regional Surface Temperatures
- 151.3.2 Greenhouse Gas Concentrations
- 151.3.3 Extreme Events
- 151.3.4.1 Sea Level
- 151.3.4.2 Ocean Acidification
- 151.3.4.3 Ice
- 151.3.4 Climate Change Indicators
- 151.3 Indicators of Climate Change
- 151.4.1 Uncertainty in Environmental Science
- 151.4.2 Characterizing Uncertainty
- 151.4.3 Treatment of Uncertainty in IPCC
- 151.4.4 Uncertainty Treatment in This Assessment
- 151.5.1 Capabilities of Observations
- 151.5.2 Capabilities in Global Climate Modelling
- 151.5 Advances in Measurement and Modelling Capabilities
- 151.6 Overview and Road Map to the Rest of the Report
- 1514.1.1 Monsoons and Tropical Convergence Zones
- 1514.1.2 Modes of Climate Variability
- 1514.1.3 Tropical and Extratropical Cyclones
- 1514.1.4 Summary of Climate Phenomena and their Impact on Regional Climate
- 1514.1 Introduction
- 1514.8.12 Southeast Asia
- 1514.8.13 Australia and New Zealand
- 1514.8.14 Pacific Islands Region
- 1514.8.15 Antarctica
- 1514.8.1 Overview
- 1514.8.2 Arctic
- 1514.8.3 North America
- 1514.8.4 Central America and Caribbean
- 1514 Executive summary
- 1514 References
- 151 Executive summary
- 151 Frequently asked questions
- 151 References
- 152.1 Introduction
- 152.2.1.1.1 Carbon dioxide
- 152.2.1.1.2 Methane
- 152.2.1.1.3 Nitrous oxide
- 152.2.1.1.4 Hydrofluorocarbons, Perfluorocarbons, Sulphur Hexafluoride and Nitrogen Trifluoride
- 152.2.1.2 Ozone-Depleting Substances (Chlorofluorocarbons, Chlorinated Solvents, and Hydrochlorofluorocarbons
- 152.2.1 Well-Mixed Greenhouse Gases
- 152.2.2.1 Stratospheric Water Vapour
- 152.2.2.2 Stratospheric Ozone
- 152.2.2.3 Tropospheric Ozone
- 152.2.2.4 Carbon Monoxide, Non-Methane Volatile Organic Compounds and Nitrogen Dioxide
- 152.2.2 Near-Term Climate Forcers
- 152.2.3.1 Aerosol Optical Depth from Remote Sensing
- 152.2.3.2 In Situ Surface Aerosol Measurements
- 152.2.3 Aerosols
- 152.3.1 Global Mean Radiation Budget
- 152.3.2 Changes in Top of the Atmosphere Radiation Budget
- 152.3.3.1 Surface Solar Radiation
- 152.3.3.2 Surface Thermal and Net Radiation
- 152.3.3.3 Implications from Observed Changes in Related Climate Elements
- 152.3 Changes in Radiation Budgets
- 152.4.1.1 Large-Scale Records and Their Uncertainties
- 152.4.1.2 Diurnal Temperature Range
- 152.4.1.3 Land Use Change and Urban Heat Island Effects
- 152.4.2.1 Advances in Assembling Data Sets and in Understanding Data Errors
- 152.4.2.2 Interpolated SST Products and Trends
- 152.4.2 Sea Surface Temperature and Marine Air Temperature
- 152.4.3 Global Combined Land and Sea Surface Temperature
- 152.4.4.1 Advances in Multi-Decadal Observational Records
- 152.4.4.2 Intercomparisons of Various Long-Term Radiosonde and MSU Products
- 152.4.4.3 Additional Evidence from Other Technologies and Approaches
- 152.4.4.4 Synthesis of Free Atmosphere Temperature Estimates
- 152.4.4 Upper Air Temperature
- 152.4 Changes in Temperature
- 152.5.1.1 Global Land Areas
- 152.5.1.2 Spatial Variability of Observed Trends
- 152.5.1.3 Changes in Snowfall
- 152.5.2 Streamflow and Runoff
- 152.5.3 Evapotranspiration Including Pan Evaporation
- 152.5.4 Surface Humidity
- 152.5.5.1 Radiosonde
- 152.5.5.2 Global Positioning System
- 152.5.5.3 Satellite
- 152.5.5.4 Reanalyses
- 152.5.5 Tropospheric Humidity
- 152.5.6.1 Surface Observations
- 152.5.6.2 Satellite Observations
- 152.5 Changes in Hydrological Cycle
- 152.6.1 Temperature Extremes
- 152.6.2.1 Precipitation Extremes
- 152.6.2.2 Floods
- 152.6.2.3 Droughts
- 152.6.2.4 Severe Local Weather Events
- 152.6.2 Extremes of the Hydrological Cycle
- 152.6.3 Tropical Storms
- 152.6.4 Extratropical Storms
- 152.6 Changes in Extreme Events
- 152.7.1 Sea Level Pressure
- 152.7.2 Surface Wind Speed
- 152.7.3 Upper-Air Winds
- 152.7.4 Tropospheric Geopotential Height and Tropopause
- 152.7.5 Tropical Circulation
- 152.7.6.1 Mid-latitude and Subtropical Jets and Storm Track Position
- 152.7.6.2 Weather Types and Blocking
- 152.7.7 Stratospheric Circulation
- 152.7.8 Changes in Indices of Climate Variability
- 152.7 Changes in Atmospheric Circulation and Patterns of Variability
- 152 Executive summary
- 152 References
- 153.1 Introduction
- 153.2.1 Effects of Sampling on Ocean Heat Content Estimates
- 153.2.2 Upper Ocean Temperature
- 153.2.3 Upper Ocean Heat Content
- 153.2.4 Deep Ocean Temperature and Heat Content
- 153.2.5 Conclusions
- 153.3.1 Introduction
- 153.3.2.1 Sea Surface Salinity
- 153.3.2.2 Upper Ocean Subsurface Salinity
- 153.3.2 Global to Basin-Scale Trends
- 153.3.3.1 Pacific and Indian Oceans
- 153.3.3.2 Atlantic Ocean
- 153.3.3.3 Arctic Ocean
- 153.3.3.4 Southern Ocean
- 153.3.3 Regional Changes in Upper Ocean Salinity
- 153.3.4 Evidence for Change of the Hydrological Cycle from Salinity Changes
- 153.3.5 Conclusions
- 153.4.1 Introduction
- 153.4.2.1 Turbulent Heat Fluxes and Evaporation
- 153.4.2.2 Surface Fluxes of Shortwave and Longwave Radiation
- 153.4.2.3 Net Heat Flux and Ocean Heat Storages Constraints
- 153.4.3 Ocean Precipitation and Freshwater Flux
- 153.4.4 Wind Stress
- 153.4.5.1 Changes in Surface Waves from Voluntary Observing Ship and Wave Model Hindcasts Forced by Reanalyses
- 153.4.5.2 Changes in Surface Waves from Buoy Data
- 153.4.5.3 Changes in Surface Waves from Satellite Data
- 153.4.5 Changes in Surface Waves
- 153.4.6 Conclusions
- 153.5.1 Introduction
- 153.5.3 Deep and Bottom Waters
- 153.5.4 Conclusions
- 153.6.1 Global Observations of Ocean Circulation Variability
- 153.6.2 Wind-Driven Circulation Variability in the Pacific Ocean
- 153.6.3 The Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation
- 153.6.4 The Antarctic Meridional Overturning Circulation
- 153.6.5.1 Indonesian Throughflow
- 153.6.5.2 The Antarctic Circumpolar Current
- 153.6.5.3 North Atlantic/Nordic Seas Exchange
- 153.6.6 Conclusions
- 153.7.1 Introduction and Overview of Sea Level Measurements
- 153.7.2 Trends in Global Mean Sea Level and Components
- 153.7.3 Regional Distribution of Sea Level Change
- 153.7.4 Assessment of Evidence for Accelerations in Sea Level Rise
- 153.7.5 Changes in Extreme Sea Level
- 153.7.6 Conclusions
- 153.8.1.1 Ocean Uptake of Carbon
- 153.8.1.2 Changes in the Oceanic Inventory of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide
- 153.8.2 Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification
- 153.8.3 Oxygen
- 153.8.4 Nutrients
- 153.8.5 Conclusions
- 153.8 Ocean Biogeochemical Changes, Including Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification
- 153.9 Synthesis
- 153 Executive Summary
- 153 References
- 154 Executive Summary
- 154 References
- 3.5.2.1 North Pacific Intermediate Water
- 3.5.2.2 Antarctic Intermediate Water
- 3.5.3.1 Upper North Atlantic Deep Water
- 3.5.3.2 Lower North Atlantic Deep Water
- 3.5.3.3 Antarctic Bottom Water
- Aiguo Dai
- Albert Klein Tank
- Alejandro Orsi
- Alex S. Gardner
- Andrey Kostianoy
- Ben Marzeion
- Ben Santer
- Bo Qiu
- Box 151.1 Description of Future Scenarios
- Box 152.1 Uncertainty in Observational Records
- Box 152.2 Quantifying Changes in the Mean: Trend Models and Estimation
- Box 152.3: Global Atmospheric Reanalyses
- Box 152.4: Extremes Indices
- Box 152.5: Patterns and Indices of Climate Variability
- Box 153.1: Change in Global Energy Inventory
- Box 153.2: Ocean Acidification
- Brian Soden
- Catia M. Domingues
- Cecilie Mauritzen
- David B. Stephenson
- David Frame
- David G. Vaughan
- Deliang Chen
- Dennis Hartman
- Donald Wuebbles
- Edmo Campos
- Eric Leuliette
- Eric Rignot
- FAQ 152.1 How Do We Know the World Has Warmed?
- FAQ 152.2 Have There Been Any Changes in Climate Extremes?
- FAQ 153.1 Is the Ocean Warming?
- FAQ 153.2 Is There Evidence for Changes in the Earth’s Water Cycle?
- FAQ 153.3 How Does Anthropogenic Ocean Acidification Relate to Climate Change?
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